Funding Information: An earlier version of this paper circulated as "Portugal's rise and fall, 1300–1900: a new analysis using occupational and women's data." We thank the members of the "Prices, Wages and Rents in Portugal 1300–1910" project for making this work possible. The editor Marianne H. Wanamaker and two referees provided useful feedback which helped improve the paper. Hélder Carvalhal, Francesco Fiore...