Author(s): Carvalho, Catarina ; R. Pinto, Isabel ; Alves, Sara ; Bernardo, Márcia
Date: 2025
Origin: Revista Psicologia
Subject(s): Bystander effect; bystander intervention model; hate crimes; online hate speech; immigrants; Bystander effect; Bystander intervention model; Hate crimes; Online hate speech; Immigrants
Online hate speech has profound implications for society, with migrants as primary targets. Underreporting by victims and bystanders obscures the true extent, indirectly legitimizing these crimes. To assess bystander intervention in online hate speech against immigrants, we developed a scale based on the five steps of the bystander intervention model. In Study 1 (N = 294), exploratory and confirmatory factor analyses confirmed the five-factor structure, having, as the final step, different types of actions that bystanders can adhere to when witnessing online hate speech. Structural equation modelling showed that, overall, each step was predicted by the preceding step, as proposed by the bystander intervention model. Study 2 (N = 240) replicated this finding and assessed the scale's criterion-related validity, revealing negative associations with moral disengagement and victim blaming, and positive associations with self-efficacy. We discuss the scale's relevance and applicability in studying bystander behaviour in response to online hate speech.
Online hate speech has profound implications for society, with migrants as primary targets. Underreporting by victims and bystanders obscures the true extent, indirectly legitimizing these crimes. To assess bystander intervention in online hate speech against immigrants, we developed a scale based on the five steps of the bystander intervention model. In Study 1 (N = 294), exploratory and confirmatory factor analyses confirmed the five-factor structure, having, as the final step, different types of actions that bystanders can adhere to when witnessing online hate speech. Structural equation modelling showed that, overall, each step was predicted by the preceding step, as proposed by the bystander intervention model. Study 2 (N = 240) replicated this finding and assessed the scale's criterion-related validity, revealing negative associations with moral disengagement and victim blaming, and positive associations with self-efficacy. We discuss the scale's relevance and applicability in studying bystander behaviour in response to online hate speech.
